PRACA POGLĄDOWA
Efekt konia trojańskiego: Czy przeciwdziałanie zanieczyszczeniu powietrza przyniosłoby lepsze skutki w walce z chorobą Alzheimera niż badania nad wynalezieniem leku?
1
MSc Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX;
2
PhD, Senior Research Associate at The Bartlett School of Environment Energy and Resources, Institute for Environmental Design and Engineering University College London, Upper Woburn Place, London
3
Now at: Public Health England, Air Quality & Public Health Group, Environmental Hazards and Emergencies Dept., Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Chilton, Oxon, OX11 0RQ
Autor do korespondencji
Hyun Jee Han
MSc Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX;
MSc Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX;
Med Srod. 2018;21(3):50-67
SŁOWA KLUCZOWE
air pollutionPM2.5WHO GuidelineneuroinflammationAlzheimer’s diseaseeco-politicsglobal trendrecapitulation model
STRESZCZENIE
Emerging evidence is showing that air pollution is achronic source of neuroinflammation, which has a causal relationship with Alzheimer ’s disease (AD), an increa-singly common and devastating illness in elderly populations. A report on the association between PM from air
pollution and AD provided scientific explanations for the mechanisms driving air pollution-induced CNS pathology, which stimulates calls for action at the political level. This scoping review considers the range of recognised and novel approaches associated with AD, highlighting how neurobiology, sociology of medicine and eco-politics collaborate to generate the interdisciplinary picture of the effects of PM on this malignancy. Such holistic approaches will allow this field to move forward and could lead to an improvement of actionable policies.
REFERENCJE (102)
1.
HEI. State of Global Air [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.stateofglobalair.o....
2.
Streit WJ. Microglial activation and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease: a critical examination of recent history. Front Aging Neurosci [Internet]. 2010 [cited 2018 Sep 19];2:22. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu... 20577641.
3.
Moulton PV, Yang W. Air Pollution, Oxidative Stress, and Alzheimer’s Disease. J Environ Public Health [Internet]. 2012 Mar 15 [cited 2018 Sep 19];2012:1–9. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journal....
4.
Block ML, Calderón-Garcidueńas L. Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease. Trends Neurosci [Internet]. 2009 Sep [cited 2018 Sep 19];32(9):506– 16. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/ 19716187.
5.
Carey IM, Anderson HR, Atkinson RW, Beevers SD, Cook DG, Strachan DP, et al. Are noise and air pollution related to the incidence of dementia? A cohort study in London, England. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2018 Sep 11 [cited 2018 Sep 19];8(9):e022404. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/30206085.
6.
Carey IM, Anderson HR, Atkinson RW, Beevers SD, Cook DG, Strachan DP, et al. Are noise and air pollution related to the incidence of dementia? A cohort study in London, England. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2018 Sep 11 [cited 2018 Oct 1];8(9):e022404. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pubmed/30206085.
7.
Liang J, Liang J. Particulate matter. Chem Model Air Resour [Internet]. 2013 Jan 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];189–219. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/... B9780124081352000094.
8.
Oberdörster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Elder A, Gelein R, Kreyling W, et al. Translocation of Inhaled Ultrafine Particles to the Brain. Inhal Toxicol [Internet]. 2004 Jan [cited 2018 Sep 19];16(6–7):437–45. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
9.
[Oberdörster G, Elder A, Rinderknecht A. Nanoparticles andthe brain: cause for concern?. J Nanosci Nanotechnol [Internet] 2009 Aug [cited 2018 Sep 19];9(8):4996–5007. Availablefrom: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
10.
TNN. 70% cut in PM2.5 levels needed [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Feb 28]. Available from: http://timesofindia.indiatimes. com/city/delhi/70-cut-in-pm2-5-levels-needed/articleshow/ 57381301.cms.
11.
Bezemer GFG. Particle deposition and clearance from the respiratory tract. 2009 Sep 17 [cited 2018 Sep 19]; Available from: Killin LOJ, Starr JM, Shiue IJ, Russ TC. Environmental risk factors for dementia: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr [Internet]. 2016 Dec 12 [cited 2018 Sep 11];16(1):175. Avai- lable from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
12.
Killin LOJ, Starr JM, Shiue IJ, Russ TC. Environmental risk factors for dementia: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr [Internet]. 2016 Dec 12 [cited 2018 Sep 11];16(1):175. Avai-lable from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
13.
Miller G, Chen E. Unfavorable Socioeconomic Conditions in Early Life Presage Expression of Proinflammatory Phenotype in Adolescence. Psychosom Med [Internet]. 2007 Jun [cited 2018 Sep 19];69(5):402–9. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
14.
Andreas Becker / ara. Economic growth vs. environmental protection | Globalization | DW | 16.06.2013 [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www. dw.com/en/economic-growth-vs-environmental-protection/ a-16878236.
15.
Khafaie M, Yajnik C, Salvi S, Ojha A. Critical review of air pollution health effects with special concern on respiratory health [Internet]. Journal of Air pollution and Health. 2016 [cited 2018 Oct 1]. p. 123–36. Available from: http://japh.tums.ac.ir/index.p....
16.
Pope CA, Dockery DW. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2006;56(6):709–42.
17.
Perez L, Declercq C, Ińiguez C, Aguilera I, Badaloni C, Ballester F, et al. Chronic burden of near-roadway traffic pollution in 10 European cities (APHEKOM network). Eur Respir J [Internet]. 2013 Sep [cited 2018 Sep 20];42(3):594– 605. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/ 23520318.
18.
Clifford A, Lang L, Chen R, Anstey KJ, Seaton A. Exposure to air pollution and cognitive functioning across the life course – A systematic literature review. Environ Res [Internet]. 2016 May 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];147:383–98. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/... 16300172.
19.
Zeng Y, Gu D, Purser J, Hoenig H, Christakis N. Associations of environmental factors with elderly health and mortality in China. Am J Public Health [Internet]. 2010 Feb 20 [cited 2018 Oct 1];100(2):298–305. Available from: http://ajph.aphapublications. org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2008.154971.
20.
Gatto NM, Henderson VW, Hodis HN, St. John JA, Lurmann F, Chen J-C, et al. Components of air pollution and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults in Los Angeles. Neurotoxicology [Internet]. 2014 Jan 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];40:1–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0161813X13001526.
21.
Chen H, Kwong JC, Copes R, Hystad P, van Donkelaar A, Tu K, et al. Exposure to ambient air pollution and the incidence of dementia: A population-based cohort study. Environ Int [Internet]. 2017 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Sep 20];108:271–Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/... pii/S0160412017308218?via%3Dihub.
22.
US EPA R 01. What are the Air Quality Standards for PM? | Air Quality Planning Unit | Ground-level Ozone | New England| US EPA. [cited 2018 Oct 1]; Available from: https://www3.epa.gov/region1/a.... html.
23.
Cacciottolo M, Wang X, Driscoll I, Woodward N, Saffari A, Reyes J, et al. Particulate air pollutants, APOE alleles and their contributions to cognitive impairment in older women and to amyloidogenesis in experimental models. Transl Psychiatry [Internet]. 2017 Jan 31 [cited 2018 Sep 19]; 7(1):e1022–e1022. Available from: http://www.nature. com/articles/tp2016280.
24.
Jung C-R, Lin Y-T, Hwang B-F. Ozone, Particulate Matter, and Newly Diagnosed Alzheimer’s Disease: A Population- Based Cohort Study in Taiwan. J Alzheimer’s Dis [Internet]. 2015 Jan 22 [cited 2018 Sep 8];44(2):573–84. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
25.
Wu Y-C, Lin Y-C, Yu H-L, Chen J-H, Chen T-F, Sun Y, et al. Association between air pollutants and dementia risk in the elderly. Alzheimer’s Dement Diagnosis, Assess Dis Monit [Internet]. 2015 Jun [cited 2018 Sep 20];1(2):220–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
26.
Zhang X, Chen X, Zhang X. The impact of exposure to air pollution on cognitive performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci [Internet]. 2018 Sep 11 [cited 2018 Sep 20];115(37):9193–7. Available from: http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi... pnas.1809474115.
27.
Oudin A, Ĺström DO, Asplund P, Steingrimsson S, Szabo Z, Carlsen HK. The association between daily concentrations of air pollution and visits to a psychiatric emergency unit: a case-crossover study. Environ Heal [Internet]. 2018 Dec [cited 2018 Sep 19];17(1):4. Available from: https://ehjournal. biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-017- 0348-8.
28.
LC-G-J of, 2012 U. White matter hyperintensities, systemic inflammation, brain growth, and cognitive functions in children exposed to air pollution. content.iospress.com [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2018 Oct 1]; Available from: https://content.iospress.com/a... jad120610.
29.
Calderón-Garcidueńas L, Mora-Tiscareńo A, Fordham LA, Valencia-Salazar G, Chung CJ, Rodriguez-Alcaraz A, et al. Respiratory damage in children exposed to urban pollution. Pediatr Pulmonol [Internet]. 2003 Aug [cited 2018 Oct 1];36(2):148–61. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/ 10.1002/ppul.10338.
30.
Campbell A, Oldham M, Becaria A, Bondy SC, Meacher D, Sioutas C, et al. Particulate Matter in Polluted Air May Increase Biomarkers of Inflammation in Mouse Brain. Neurotoxicology [Internet]. 2005 Jan 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];26(1):133–40. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0161813X04001159.
31.
Calderón-Garcidueńas L, Mora-Tiscareńo A, Ontiveros E, Gómez-Garza G, Barragán-Mejía G, Broadway J, et al. Air pollution, cognitive deficits and brain abnormalities: A pilot study with children and dogs. Brain Cogn [Internet]. 2008 Nov [cited 2018 Sep 19];68(2):117–27. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com... 747.
32.
Kleinman MT, Araujo JA, Nel A, Sioutas C, Campbell A, Cong PQ, et al. Inhaled ultrafine particulate matter affects CNS inflammatory processes and may act via MAP kinase signaling pathways. Toxicol Lett [Internet]. 2008 May 5 [cited 2018 Oct 1];178(2):127–30. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/... 08000635.
33.
Win-Shwe T-T, Yamamoto S, Fujitani Y, Hirano S, Fujimaki H. Spatial learning and memory function-related gene expression in the hippocampus of mouse exposed to nanoparticle- rich diesel exhaust. Neurotoxicology [Internet]. 2008 Nov 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];29(6):940–7. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/... X08001848.
34.
Gerlofs-Nijland ME, Totlandsdal AI, Kilinç E, Boere AJF, Fokkens PHB, Leseman DLA., et al. Pulmonary and cardiovascular effects of traffic-related particulate matter: 4-week exposure of rats to roadside and diesel engine exhaust particles. Inhal Toxicol [Internet]. 2010 Dec 2 [cited 2018 Oct 1];22(14):1162–73. Available from: http://www.tandfonline. com/doi/full/10.3109/08958378.2010.531062.
35.
Zanchi ACT, Fagundes LS, Barbosa F, Bernardi R, Rhoden CR, Saldiva PHN, et al. Pre and post-natal exposure to ambient level of air pollution impairs memory of rats: the role of oxidative stress. Inhal Toxicol [Internet]. 2010 Sep 22 [cited.2018 Oct 1];22(11):910–8. Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi... 10.494313.
36.
Fonken LK, Xu X, Weil ZM, Chen G, Sun Q, Rajagopalan S, et al. Air pollution impairs cognition, provokes depressive- like behaviors and alters hippocampal cytokine expression and morphology. Mol Psychiatry [Internet]. 2011 Oct 5 [cited 2018 Oct 1];16(10):987–95. Available from: http://www.nature.com/articles....
37.
Levesque S, Surace MJ, McDonald J, Block ML. Air pollution & the brain: Subchronic diesel exhaust exposure causes neuroinflammation and elevates early markers of neurodegenerative disease. J Neuroinflammation [Internet]. 2011 Aug 24 [cited 2018 Oct 1];8(1):105. Available from: http://jneuroinflammation.biom... 86/1742-2094-8-105.
38.
Morgan TE, Davis DA, Iwata N, Tanner JA, Snyder D, Ning Z, et al. Glutamatergic Neurons in Rodent Models Respond to Nanoscale Particulate Urban Air Pollutants in Vivo and in Vitro. Environ Health Perspect [Internet]. 2011 Apr 7 [cited 2018 Oct 1];119(7):1003–9. Available from: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/10029....
39.
Kim S-P, Choi M-H, Kim J-H, Yeon H-W, Yoon H-J, Kim HS, et al. Changes of 2-back task performance and physiological signals in ADHD children due to transient increase in oxygen level. Neurosci Lett [Internet]. 2012 Mar 9 [cited 2018 Oct 1];511(2):70–3. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304394012000663.
40.
Allen JL, Liu X, Weston D, Prince L, Oberdörster G, Finkelstein JN, et al. Developmental Exposure to Concentrated Ambient Ultrafine Particulate Matter Air Pollution in Mice Results in Persistent and Sex-Dependent Behavioral Neurotoxicity and Glial Activation. Toxicol Sci [Internet]. 2014 Jul 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];140(1):160–78. Available from: http://academic.oup.com/toxsci... Developmental-Exposure-to-Concentrated-Ambient.
41.
Guerra R, Vera-Aguilar E, Uribe-Ramirez M, Gookin G, Camacho J, Osornio-Vargas AR, et al. Exposure to inhaled particulate matter activates early markers of oxidative stress, inflammation and unfolded protein response in rat striatum. Toxicol Lett [Internet]. 2013 Oct 24 [cited 2018 Oct 1];222(2):146–54. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0378427413011363.
42.
Bhatt A. Assessing unmet medical need in India: A regulatory riddle? Perspect Clin Res [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 Oct 1];6(1):1–3. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pubmed/25657895.
43.
Durga M, Devasena T, Rajasekar A. Determination of LC50 and sub-chronic neurotoxicity of diesel exhaust nanoparticles. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol [Internet]. 2015 Sep 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];40(2):615–25. Available from: https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1382668915300 259.
44.
Mills NL, Donaldson K, Hadoke PW, Boon NA, MacNee W, Cassee FR, et al. Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med [Internet]. 2009 Jan 25 [cited 2018 Sep 8];6(1):36–44. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
45.
VALAVANIDIS A, FIOTAKIS K, VLACHOGIANNI T. Airborne Particulate Matter and Human Health: Toxicological Assessment and Importance of Size and Composition of Particles for Oxidative Damage and Carcinogenic Mechanisms. J Environ Sci Heal Part C [Internet]. 2008 Dec 2 [cited 2018 Sep 19];26(4):339–62. Available from: http://www.tandfonline. com/doi/abs/10.1080/10590500802494538.
46.
Geiser M, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Kapp N, Schürch S, Kreyling W, Schulz H, et al. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environ Health Perspect [Internet]. 2005 Nov 26 [cited 2018 Sep 19];113(11):1555–60. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm....
47.
Genc S, Zadeoglulari Z, Fuss SH, Genc K. The Adverse Effects of Air Pollution on the Nervous System. J Toxicol [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2018 Sep 19];2012:1–23. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
48.
Gackičre F, Saliba L, Baude A, Bosler O, Strube C. Ozone inhalation activates stress-responsive regions of the CNS. J Neurochem [Internet]. 2011 Jun 1 [cited 2018 Sep 19];117(6):961–72. Available from: http://doi.wiley.com/ 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07267.x.
49.
Cunningham C, Campion S, Lunnon K, Murray CL, Woods JFC, Deacon RMJ, et al. Systemic Inflammation Induces Acute Behavioral and Cognitive Changes and Accelerates Neurodegenerative Disease. Biol Psychiatry [Internet]. 2009 Feb 15 [cited 2018 Sep 19];65(4):304–12. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
50.
Elmquist JK, Scammell TE, Saper CB. Mechanisms of CNS response to systemic immune challenge: the febrile response. Trends Neurosci [Internet]. 1997 Dec [cited 2018 Oct 1];20(12):565–70. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/9416669.
51.
Osornio-Vargas AR, Bonner JC, Alfaro-Moreno E, Martínez L, García-Cuellar C, Ponce-de-León Rosales S, et al. Proinflammatory and cytotoxic effects of Mexico City air pollution particulate matter in vitro are dependent on particle size and composition. Environ Health Perspect [Internet]. 2003 Aug [cited 2018 Oct 1];111(10):1289–93. Available from: https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/....
52.
Oberdörster G. Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int Arch Occup Environ Health [Internet]. 2001 Jan [cited 2018 Sep 19];74(1):1–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
54.
Rivest S. How circulating cytokines trigger the neural circuits that control the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Psychoneuroendocrinology [Internet]. 2001 Nov [cited 2018 Oct 1];26(8):761–88. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/11585678.
55.
Calderón-Garcidueńas L, Reed W, Maronpot RR, Henríquez- Roldán C, Delgado-Chavez R, Calderón-Garcidueńas A, et al. Brain inflammation and Alzheimer’s-like pathology in individuals exposed to severe air pollution. Toxicol Pathol. 2004;32(6):650–8.
56.
Selkoe DJ. Alzheimer’s Disease: Genes, Proteins, and Therapy. Physiol Rev [Internet]. 2001 Apr [cited 2018 Oct 1];81(2):741–66. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pubmed/11274343.
57.
World Health Organisation. Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease. Geneva, Switzerland; 2016.
58.
Larsen B. SPEAKER Bjorn Larsen Summary: White Paper Report by Bjorn Larsen [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 Sep 9]. Available from: https://www.copenhagenconsensu....
59.
WHO. WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/ iris/bitstream/handle/10665/69477/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_ 06.02_eng.pdf;jsessionid=CD198B0F1468BE9BEBFCFC18E 71D4EA6?sequence=1.
60.
Arthur Neslen. Europe escalates action against UK for breaching air pollution limits | Environment | The Guardian [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https:// www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/feb/06/europeancommission-escalates-action-uk breaching-air-pollution-limits.
61.
WHO. WHO | WHO Global Ambient Air Quality Database (update 2018). WHO [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Oct 1]; Available from: http://www.who.int/airpollutio....
62.
O’neill J. Building Better Global Economic BRICs [Internet]. 2001 [cited 2018 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.gs.com.
63.
Koenig P. BRICS – Potential and Future in an Emerging New World Economy - Global ResearchGlobal Research - Centre for Research on Globalization [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.globalresearch.ca/....
64.
The World Bank. PM2.5 air pollution, population exposed to levels exceeding WHO guideline value (% of total) | Data [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 9]. Available from: https://data.worldbank.org/ind....
65.
Wu T. China, BRICs & the Environment | The Diplomat [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2011/1....
66.
Brauer M. PM2.5 air pollution, population exposed to levels exceeding WHO guideline value. 2015;.
67.
OECD. Exposure to PM2.5 in countries and regions : Exposure to PM2.5 in macroregions [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Sep 20]. Available from: http://www.oecd.org/.
68.
Conama. Padroes de qualidade do Ar, Resolucao CONAMA [Internet]. 1990 [cited 2018 Oct 1]. Available from: http://www.ibram.df.gov.br/ima....
69.
Berrueta V, Edward R, Masera O. Brazil Perspectives: Air Pollution | Copenhagen Consensus Center [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.copenhagenconsensu....
70.
Karagulian F, Van Dingenen R, Belis CA, Janssens-Maenhout G, Crippa M, Guizzardi D, et al. Attribution of anthropogenic PM2.5 to emission sources. JEC Tech Reports [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Oct 1]; Available from: https://ec. europa.eu/jrc.
71.
Pacheco MT, Parmigiani MMM, de Fatima Andrade M, Morawska L, Kumar P. A review of emissions and concentrations of particulate matter in the three major metropolitan areas of Brazil. J Transp Heal [Internet]. 2017;4(December 2016):53–72. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jth.2017.01.008.
72.
Apte JS, Kirchstetter TW, Reich AH, Deshpande SJ, Kaushik G, Chel A, et al. Concentrations of fine, ultrafine, and black carbon particles in auto-rickshaws in New Delhi, India. Atmos Environ [Internet]. 2011 Aug 1 [cited 2018 Oct 1];45(26):4470–80. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/....
73.
Nandil J. PM2.5 levels this week were worse than Diwali 2014 [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://toibnews.timesofindia....? errurl=timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM2-5-levelsthis-week-were-worse thanDiwali/articleshow/45651422. cms.
74.
WHO | Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database 2014. WHO [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2018 Oct 1]; Available from: http://www.who.int/phe/health_...
75.
Chun Z. Can China meet its 2017 air quality goals? | Opinion | Eco-Business | Asia Pacific [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.eco-business. com/opinion/can-china-meet its-2017-air-quality-goals/.
76.
Apte JS, Marshall JD, Cohen AJ, Brauer M. Addressing Global Mortality from Ambient PM 2.5. Environ Sci Technol [Internet]. 2015 Jul 7 [cited 2018 Oct 1];49(13):8057–66. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu....
77.
Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K, AdairRohani H, et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet [Internet]. 2012 Dec 15 [cited 2018 Oct 1];380(9859):2224– 60. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pu... 23245609.
78.
J.P. How China cut its air pollution - The Economist explains [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.economist.com/the-... air-pollution.
79.
Gardiner B. China’s Surprising Solutions to Air Pollution [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://news.nationalgeographi... environment-tangshan/.
80.
Chang E. bluetechaward [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: http://www.bluetechaward.com/.
81.
Greenpeace Analysis. China’s operating steel capacity increased in 2016, despite efforts on overcapacity [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://securedstatic.greenpea... Overcapacity, Feb2017/GPEA Media Briefing_Research Report on Overcapacity Reduction in China’s Steel Industry.pdf
82.
Howard BC. Haunting Photos Show Source of Illegal Carbon Emissions in China [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://news.nationalgeographi... 11/illegal-coal-fired-steel-plants-mongolia/.
83.
Klafke RV, Ahrens RDB, Gomes R, Pilatti LA, Francisco AC De. Air pollution indicators in Brazil , Russia , India and China ( BRIC ) countries. 2015;10(16):513–21.
84.
Department for Environment F and RA (Defra) webmaster@defra. gsi. gov. u. UK and EU Air Quality Limits- Defra, UK. [cited 2018 Sep 19]; Available from: https://ukair.defra.gov.uk/air... limits
85.
EEA. Air quality in Europe — 2017 report; European Environment Agency, Kongens Nytorv 6, 1050 Copenhagen, Denmark. EEA Technical Report. 2017. 80 p.
86.
WHO. WHO | Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease. WHO [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]; Available from: http://www.who.int/ phe/publications/air pollution-global-assessment/en/.
87.
Knapton S. Living near a busy road may raise risk of dementia, major study into pollution finds [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www. telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/01/04/living-near-busy-road-mayraise-risk-dementia-major-study pollution/.
88.
Block ML, Elder A, Auten RL, Bilbo SD, Chen H, Chen JC, et al. The outdoor air pollution and brain health workshop. Neurotoxicology [Internet]. 2012 Oct [cited 2018 Sep 19];33(5):972–84. Available from: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com....
89.
Doherty RM, Heal MR, Wilkinson P, Pattenden S, Vieno M, Armstrong B, et al. Current and future climate- and air pollution mediated impacts on human health. Environ Heal [Internet]. 2009 Dec 21 [cited 2018 Oct 1];8(Suppl 1):S8. Available from: http://ehjournal.biomedcentral... articles/10.1186/1476-069X-8-S1-S8.
90.
LAEI. London Datastore [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2018 Oct 1]. Available from: https://data.london.gov.uk/dat....
91.
Walton H, Dajnak D, Beevers S, Williams M, Watkiss P, Hunt A. Understanding the Health Impacts of Air Pollution in London For: Transport for London and the Greater London Authority Title: TFL 90419 Task 5: Understanding the Health Impacts of Air Pollution in London [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 Oct 1]. Available from: https://www.london. gov.uk/sites/default/files/HIAinLondon_KingsReport_14072 015_final_0.pdf.
93.
Alzheimer’s Society. How do drugs for Alzheimer’s disease work? | Alzheimer’s Society [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/... dementia/treatments/drugs/how-do-drugs-alzheimers-disease-work.
94.
Sheldrick G. Dementia cure at last: First drug to stop disease in its tracks | Express.co.uk [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.express.co.uk/life style/health/665115/Alzheimer-dementia-cure-drug-stop-disease.
95.
Alzheimer’s Research. New study shows funding for dementia research still too low | Alzheimer’s Research UK [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.alzheimersresearch....
96.
Movement I. Sixth Leading Cause of Death [Internet]. [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: http://act.alz.org/site/DocSer....
97.
Rosenstein B. Environmental rollback will be costly [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2017 Mar 8]. Available from: http://www.baltimoresun.com/ne....
98.
Owenscooper. Is the Balearic Eco Tax already having a negative impact? | Owens Cooper Consulting [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: http:// owenscooper.co.uk/is-the-balearic-eco-tax-already-havinga-negative-impact/.
99.
Shrubsole C. How London’s next mayor could fix air pollution – and save lives [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://theconversation.com/ho... pollution-and-save-lives-58597
100.
Ma Q, Cai S, Wang S, Zhao B, Martin R V., Brauer M, et al. Impacts of coal burning on ambient PM& lt;sub >2.5 pollution in China. Atmos Chem Phys [Internet]. 2017 Apr 3 [cited 2018 Sep 19];17(7):4477–91. Available from: https://www.atmoschem-phys.net....
101.
London Air. London Air Quality Network :: Welcome to the London Air Quality Network » Statistics Maps [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.londonair.org.uk/l... sp?region=0&bulletin=peakvalues&site=&lat=51.4750&lo n=- 0.119824&Species=All&laEdge=&VenueCode=&zoom=9 &WhoBulletin=Y.
102.
Trading Economics. Latin America & Caribbean (developing only) - PM2.5 air pollution, mean annual exposure (micrograms per cubic meter [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Sep 19]. Available from: https://tradingeconomics.com/l... annual-exposure-micrograms-per-cubic-meter-wbdata.html.
Udostępnij
ARTYKUŁ POWIĄZANY
| eISSN: | 2084-6312 |
| ISSN: | 1505-7054 |
Przetwarzamy dane osobowe zbierane podczas odwiedzania serwisu. Realizacja funkcji pozyskiwania informacji o użytkownikach i ich zachowaniu odbywa się poprzez dobrowolnie wprowadzone w formularzach informacje oraz zapisywanie w urządzeniach końcowych plików cookies (tzw. ciasteczka). Dane, w tym pliki cookies, wykorzystywane są w celu realizacji usług, zapewnienia wygodnego korzystania ze strony oraz w celu monitorowania ruchu zgodnie z Polityką prywatności. Dane są także zbierane i przetwarzane przez narzędzie Google Analytics (więcej).
Możesz zmienić ustawienia cookies w swojej przeglądarce. Ograniczenie stosowania plików cookies w konfiguracji przeglądarki może wpłynąć na niektóre funkcjonalności dostępne na stronie.
Możesz zmienić ustawienia cookies w swojej przeglądarce. Ograniczenie stosowania plików cookies w konfiguracji przeglądarki może wpłynąć na niektóre funkcjonalności dostępne na stronie.
